THE MICROFLORA OF PACKAGE WATER SOLD IN ISA MUSTAPHA AGWAI I POLYTECHNIC, LAFIA

The finding of this study will provide optimal level in which broiler chicken could tolerate for optimum performance and weight gain. 4 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Nigeria is endowed with a wide range of agro-industrial by-products that possess enormous potential for utilization in livestock feeding. These include cassava peels, yam peels, sweet potato peels, maize cobs, millet residues, and soybean waste. These agro-based materials are primarily rich in carbohydrates and therefore serve as important sources of energy in animal nutrition. However, despite their availability and economic advantages, they are limited by factors such as low protein content, high crude fibre, poor digestibility, and the presence of antinutritional factors. The feeding value of these agro-by-products has been widely documented. According to Jiwuba and Owuna (2018), when properly processed and incorporated into animal diets, these materials can significantly reduce feed cost without adversely affecting animal performance. The utilization of these unconventional feed resources is therefore essential for improving the sustainability and profitability of poultry production in Nigeria. 2.1 Poultry Poultry refers to domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of producing meat and eggs. These birds include chickens, guinea fowls, turkeys, geese, pigeons, ducks, ostriches, pheasants, quails, and other game birds. Among these 5 species, the chicken is the most widely distributed and economically important across the world (Roengk, 1999; Aho, 2001). The dominance of chickens in poultry production can be attributed to several factors, including their adaptability to diverse environmental conditions, high reproductive efficiency, rapid growth rate, and the high nutritional value of their meat and eggs. Poultry meat and eggs are rich in high-quality protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, making them vital components of human diets. In Nigeria, poultry contributes approximately 10% of the total meat production (Ebeggelum, 2012). The total chicken population is estimated at about 170 million birds, comprising approximately 20 million exotic breeds and 150 million indigenous breeds. Despite the large population of indigenous chickens, their productivity remains low due to poor genetic potential, inadequate nutrition, and extensive management systems. Several authors have emphasized the importance of poultry production in rural development. Sonaiya (1997), Gueye (1998), and Branckaert et al. (2000) reported that poultry production plays a significant role in the livelihoods of rural communities by providing income, employment, and food security. Similarly, Akinola and Essien (2011) noted that rural poultry farming is a valuable asset for poverty alleviation and economic empowerment. 6 2.2 The Chicken The domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus) is the most abundant poultry species worldwide, especially in developing countries (Andrew, 1990; Jalaludin, 1992). Chickens are classified under the order Galliformes, family Phasianidae, and genus Gallus (Crawford, 1990a). Modern chickens are believed to have originated from jungle fowls, particularly the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), which is considered the primary ancestor. Other species that contributed to the evolution of domestic chickens include the grey jungle fowl, green jungle fowl, and Ceylon jungle fowl. However, Moreng and Avens (1995) concluded that the red jungle fowl remains the most significant contributor to modern chicken genetics. Chickens are highly valued due to their ability to convert feed efficiently into meat and eggs, making them one of the most productive livestock species. 2.2.1 The Broiler Chicken Broilers are meat-type chickens specifically bred for rapid growth and high feed efficiency. They are usually raised for meat production and are marketed at a young age, typically between 6 and 10 weeks. Broilers are known for their ability to attain a live weight of approximately 1.8–2.5 kg within a short period (Obioha, 1992; Onwuka, 2000). This rapid growth rate makes broiler production one of the quickest means of producing animal protein. 7 In addition, broiler production is free from many cultural and religious restrictions that affect other livestock species, making it widely acceptable across different regions. 2.3 Poultry Feeds Feed is any material consumed by animals that can be digested, absorbed, and utilized for body maintenance, growth, reproduction, and production. Poultry feed is composed of water and dry matter. The dry matter consists of: • Carbohydrates (energy source) • Proteins (growth and repair) • Fats and oils (energy and insulation) • Vitamins (metabolic regulation) • Minerals (structural and physiological functions) The major functions of feed include: • Providing energy for maintenance and body temperature regulation • Supplying nutrients for growth and tissue repair • Supporting egg and meat production • Enhancing reproductive performance 8 Feed accounts for approximately 60–80% of the total cost of poultry production (Ukachukwu and Anugwa, 1995). Therefore, it is the most critical factor affecting the profitability of poultry farming. The high cost of feed in Nigeria is mainly due to the scarcity of conventional feed ingredients such as maize and soybean meal, as well as their competition with human consumption. This has led to increased interest in alternative feed resources. 2.4 Energy Requirement of Chicken Energy is a key component of poultry nutrition as it regulates feed intake and supports metabolic activities. It is usually expressed as metabolizable energy (ME). The National Research Council (1994) recommended an energy level of about 3000 kcal/kg for both starter and finisher broiler diets. Similar recommendations were made by Aduku (1993) and Olomu (1995), especially under tropical conditions. Environmental temperature plays a significant role in determining energy requirements. In hot climates, birds tend to consume less feed, which may reduce energy intake. However, high temperatures may also reduce maintenance energy requirements. 9 Feed intake in poultry is largely influenced by the energy concentration of the diet, provided that other nutrients are adequate and feed bulkiness does not limit consumption. 2.5 Protein Requirement Protein is essential for growth, tissue development, enzyme production, and overall performance in broiler chickens. Recommended crude protein levels for broilers include: • Starter phase (0–3 weeks): 22–24% • Grower phase (3–6 weeks): 20–21% • Finisher phase (6–9 weeks): 18–19% Olomu (1995) recommended protein levels of 24%, 21%, and 18% for the respective phases, while Aduku (1992) suggested 21.2% for starter diets. McDonald et al. (1987) recommended 23% and 19% for starter and finisher diets, respectively. Inadequate protein intake can lead to poor growth, reduced feed efficiency, and increased susceptibility to diseases. 2.6 Crude Fibre Requirement